ARCHITECTONIC = ARSITEKTONIK

ARSITEKTONIK

Definisi

Pemahaman komposisi arsitektonik sebagai suatu sistem spasial yang memiliki kinerja tertentu dimana rancangan arsitektonik adalah sintesa yang berupaya mengatasi permasalahan yang telah dirumuskan setelah membuat kajian tapak maupun fungsi yang dipilih sendiri.

Demikian jelasnya bahwa arsitektonik sangat erat hubungannya dengan arsitektur, memiliki bagian dari arsitektur. Dapat pula diartikan sebagai suatu sistem dari arsitektur itu sendiri. Arsitektonik juga mempunyai filosofi dalam kaidah arsitek.
Arsitektonik merupakan suatu sistem, sebuah kedekatan dan inflamasi kaidah arsitektural tentunya tidak akan jauh dari arsitektonik tersebut, misalnya saat kita mulai bicara tentang kebudayaanya maka. sistem itu bisa dikatakan sebagai arsitektonik.
Secara umum Arsitektonik (architectonic) berarti struktur logis yang diberikan oleh akal (terutama melalui pemanfaatan pembagian berlipat-dua dan berlipat tiga), yang harus digunakan oleh filsuf sebagai rencana untuk mengorganisasikan isi sistem apa pun.

Tektonika berkaitan erat dengan material struktur, dan konstruksi, namun tektonika lebih menekankan pada aspek estetika yang dihasilkan oleh suatu sistem struktur atau ekspresi dari suatu konstruksi dari pada aspek teknologinya.
Penggunaan istilah tektonika sendiri sudah dikenal sejak lama dan telah mengalami perkembangan.Tektonika berasal dari kata tekton dan sering ditulis dengan kata tektonamai yang dalam bahasa yunani secara harafiah berartipertukangan kayu atau pembangun. Dalam bahasa sansakerta dapat disamakan dengan kata taksan yang berarti seni pertukangan kayu yang menggunakan kapak,
Puisi vedic juga mengartikan tektonik dalam arti yang sama, yaitu pertukangan kayu, kemudian homer mengartikan istilah ini sebagai seni konstruksi secara umum.
Adolf Heinrich Borbein juga mengungkapkan hal yang sama tentang tektonika, pada studi phiologinya (1982) dia mengatakan bahwa tektonika menjadi seni dari pertemuan atau sambungan, seni dalam hal ini ditekankan pada tekne, sehingga tektonika bukan hanya bagian dari bangunan tetapi dalam arti yang lebih sempit juga berarti sebagai objek atau karya seni.
Seiring perjalanan waktu, pengertian kata tektonik dalam konstruksi lebih mengarah kepada hal pembuatan karya seni, tergantung benar salahnya penerapannya dalam kegunaan pada nilai seni tersebut.

Penggunaan istilah tektonika secara arsitektural muncul di jerman dalam buku karya Karl Otfried Muller yang berjudul ”Handbuch der Archeologie der kunst” / ”Handbook of the Archeology of Art” 1830.
Dia mengartikan tektonik sebagai penggunaan sederet bentuk seni pada peralatan, bejana bunga, pemukiman, dan tempat pertemuan, yang dibentuk dan dikembangkan di satu sisi pada penerapanya dan di sisi lain untuk menguatkan ekspresi perasaan dan pengertian atau buah pikiran seni.
Tektonika pada arsitektur sering kali dilakuakan karena ingin memberikan penekanan pentingnya suatu bagian bangunan tertentu dari bangunan dan keinginan memberiakan suatu ekspresi yang mendalam kepada bangunan.
Karl Botticher Pada bukunya ”The Tectonic Of Helen” memposisikan kata tektonik sebagai pemberi arti pada sistem ikatan yang lengkap dari semua bagian kiul yunani menjadi keseluruhan yang utuh, termasuk rangka dari sculpture dalam segala bentuk.
Sedangkan Semper mengelompokan tektonika pada bangunan menjadi dua prosedur yang mendasar, yaitu :
• Tektonika dari rangka ringan yang terdiri dari komponen-komponen linier yang dikelompokkan menjadi matriks spasial
• Steorotomik bagian dasar dimana massa dan volume terbentuk dari elemen-elemen berat.
Eduard Sekter dalam “Structure Constriction and tectonics” mendefinisikan bentuk tektonik sebagai ekspresi yang ditimbulkan oleh penekanan struktur dari bentuk konstruksi, dengan demikian hasil ekspresi tektonika tidak dapat diperhitungkan hanya sebagai istilah pada struktur dan konstruksi saja.
Arsitektonika, Struktur Konstruksi, dan Perancangan Arsitektur
Tektonika berperan dalam mengabungkan kesenjangan antara struktur dan konstruksi dengan perancangan dalam arsitektur, tektonika membedakan struktur dan konstruksi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu :
1. Struktur hanya dipakai untuk keperluan mewujudkan rancnagan sebuah bangunan. Elemen-elemen struktur hanay sebagai elemen penerus beban,sedang karakteristik struktur tidak ikut memberikan nilai arsitekturalnya.
2. Struktur terintegrasi dengan fungsi dan bentuk bangunan, dengan demikian elemen-elemen struktur sekaligus adalah elemen-elemen arsitektural yang ikut memberikan nilai arsitekturalnya.
Arsitektonik lebih menitikberatkan pada poin yang ke dua, yaitu kemampuan menemukan bentuk-bentuk yang menarik dari elemen-elemen struktur untuk diterapkan dalam perancangan arsitektur yang mungkin akan memacu semangat akan pemahaman struktur secara mendalam.
Struktur dan Konstruksi memang merupakan aspek teknis namun disisi lain juga merupakan aspek simbolik yang representatif. Suatu karya arsitektur dapat berdiri karena terdapat pertimbangan struktur dan konstruksi didalamnya, namun tetap dalam kapasitasnya sebagai sebuah karya arsitektur, yang tetap menitik beratkan pada pengolahan-pengolahan bentuk dan elemen dari sistem struktur yang diterapkan.
Dalam hal ini arsitektonik berperan memberi artikulasi pada mekanisme penyaluran beban dan elemen-elemen struktur, mengolah bentuk secara inovatif hingga menghasilkan potensi bentuk arsitektural secara keseluryhan maupun sambungan detail-detail konstruksi yang digunakan. Bentuk-bentuk yang digunakan hendaknya mempunyai nilai filosofi dalam seni bangunan, bukan sekedar detail-detail figuratif yang abstrak.
Tektonika bisa dimulai dari pemilihan struktur bangunan sesuai fungsinya.
Contoh :
• Bangunan candi dibuat dengan struktur yang massif, berat, dan tertutup. Hal ini sesuai dengan fungsinya sebagai tempat ibadah yang sakral dan magis, serta aberorientasi kedalam.
• Struktur pendopo pada rumah dat jawa yang terkesan ringan dan terbuka, hal ini menyangkut fungsinya sebagai tempat menerima tamu dan ditunjang dengan budaya masyarakat jawa yang terbuka kepada siapa saja yang datang.
• Bangunan ibadah yang ada yaitu gothic pada gereja, dan kubah pada mesjid
Tektonika tak berhenti pada sistem struktur saja, tetapi berlanjut kedalam elemen konstruksi seperti kolom-kolom, dinding-dinding, balok-balok, detail-detail sambungan.
Untuk menggabungkan bentu-bentuk arsitektur dan tektonika disbutuhkan suatu pengetahuan dan kepekaan terhadap desain dan material-material yang ada. Pencitraan masing-masing material harus benar-benar dipahami.
Memahami arsitektonik bukan sesuatu hal yang dapat dipelajari secara teoritis, tetapi diperlikan latihan-latihan dan uji coba.Pada tahap lanjut, diperlukan suatu pemikiran yang holistik(terpadu) antara perinsip-perinsip perancangan, konsep struktur, pengetahuan iklim sosial dan budaya, dll. Yang menunjang ide desain arsitektural secara utuh.

Pandangan Hidup sebagai Bangunan Konsep Arsitektonik

Jika konsep-konsep dalam pandangan hidup itu saling terkait erat dan merupakan kesatuan pemikiran maka pandangan hidup adalah bangunan konsep yang terdapat dalam pikiran seseorang atau jaringan berfikir (mental network) yang berupa keseluruhan yang saling berhubugan (architectonic whole). Bangunan konsep itu terbentuk dalam alam pikiran seseorang secara perlahan-lahan (in a gradual manner), bermula dari akumulasi konsep-konsep dan sikap mental yang dikembangkan oleh seseorang sepanjang hidupnya, sehingga akhirnya membentuk framework berfikir (mental framework). Secara epistemologis proses berfikir ini sama dengan cara kita mencari dan memperoleh ilmu, yaitu akumulasi pengetahuan a priori dan a posteriori. Proses itu dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut: ilmu pengetahuan yang diperoleh seseorang itu sudah tentu terdiri dari berbagai konsep dalam bentuk ide-ide, kepercayaan, aspirasi dan lain-lain yang kesemuanya membentuk suatu totalitas konsep yang saling berkaitan dan terorganisasikan dalam suatu jaringan (network). Jaringan ini membentuk struktur berfikir yang koheren yaitu suatu keseluruhan yang saling berhubungan. Maka dari itu pandangan hidup seseorang itu terbentuk tidak lama setelah pengetahuan yang diperoleh dalam bentuk konsep-konsep itu membentuk suatu keseluruhan yang saling berhubungan. Konsep-konsep yang terakumulasi itu sudah tentu melalui proses dan mekanisme mengetahui yang menerima dan menolak pengetahuan yang diperolehnya secara selektif. Artinya ketika akal seseorang menerima pengetahuan terjadi proses seleksi yang alami, dimana pengetahuan tertentu diterima dan pengetahuan yang lain ditolak. Pengetahuan yang diterima oleh akal kita akan menjadi bagian dari struktur worldview yang dimilikinya dan jika akal tidak menerimanya ia tidak menjadi bagian dari pandangan hidup. Orang bisa saja mengetahui faham sekularisme, misalnya, tapi ia tidak mesti menerima faham itu dan menjadi sekuler.
Jika struktur konsep yang masuk kedalam pikiran seseorang itu dilacak secara alami maka maka akan kita bahwa konsep yang pertama kali masuk dalam pikiran seseorang adalah tentang kehidupan, termasuk didalamnya konsep hubungan antar sesama arti dan tujuan hidup (dalam kasus Islam bisa bertambah menjadi arti hidup dunia dan akherat), cara-cara manusia menjalani kegiatan kehidupan sehari-hari, sikap-sikap individual dan sosialnya, dan sebagainya. Sesudah konsep hidup dan kehidupan berkembang dalam pikiran seseorang maka secara alami pula konsep mengenai dunia dimana manusia hidup akan terbentuk. Pandangan dan konsep mengenai dunia di sekitarnya ini akan melahirkan konsep ilmu pengetahuan. Gabungan dari konsep kehidupan, dunia dan pengetahuan ini melahirkan konsep yang lebih canggih lagi yaitu konsep nilai dan moralitas.Dari kombinasi itu semua konsep yang tidak kalah pentingnya adalah konsep tentang diri manusia itu sendiri. Meskipun pengetahuan yang diterima oleh akal manusia itu bersifat acak, namun ketika ia terstruktur dalam pikiran manusia dalam bentuk konsep-konsep ia dapat diindetifikasi.
Professor Alparslan mengkategorikan struktur pandangan hidup menjadi lima
bidang konsep:
1) Struktur konsep tentang kehidupan,
2) Struktur konsep tentang dunia,
3) Struktur konsep tentang manusia,
4) Struktur konsep tentang nilai dan
5) strutktur konsep tentang pengetahuan.
Proses akumulasi struktur konsep diatas dalam pikiran seseorang tidak selalu berurutan, atau bahkan mungkin dalam beberapa aspek simultan, tapi yang penting kelima struktur itu pada akhirnya menjadi suatu kesatuan konsep. Kesatuan konsep ini berfungsi sebagai kerangka umum (general scheme) dalam memahami segala sesuatu termasuk diri kita sendiri, dan bahkan mendominasi cara berfikir kita. Maka dalam pengertian ini pandangan hidup merupakan framework berfikir. Ini berarti bahwa teori atau konsep apapun yang dihasilkan oleh seseorang dengan pandangan hidup tertentu akan merupakan produk dari struktur konsep diatas.
Berikut ini beberapa artikel yang dapat memberikan penjelasan lebih dalam mengenai pembahasan Arsitektonik.
-ARCHITECTONIC
This leads us to the final of these three tools of vivisection, the “architectonic” approach to a work’s structure. By “architectonic” I do not mean the reductio ad absurdum of academic theory in which the standard forms of the classical period are parsed into their functionally related harmonic areas, divided into thematic and transitional sections, and finally fitted to the procrustean bed of one or another simplified label. This is, so to speak, a linguistic feature of common practice tonality, rather than a structural feature of an individual work; insofar as it is treated as a universally applicable mold, it is of dubious value even in the study of the works for which it was designed, much less in the study of pre-tonal music. Rather I mean the term to be understood in the broader and more useful sense: to describe not the unconscious linguistic factors of common practice music, but the very concrete, conscious structural device of setting up within a given work a unique and fundamental architectonic conflict. This conflict tends, in its nature, to be extralinguistic; its power derives from its intrusion upon the natural fabric of the language, the manner in which it lies outside, and hence disturbs and modifies, the natural flow of the musical dialect. Witness, in this respect, the Neapolitan tonal areas in middle Beethoven, or the mediant and submediant tonal areas in Brahms. In a work such as, say, the Appassionata sonata, the theme is introduced in the Neapolitan immediately following its initial tonic statement. This creates a parity of sorts between the two harmonic areas and sets the stage for their elemental conflict, a kind of dialectical process in which the Neapolitan serves as a foreign irritant, an alien harmonic area whose progressive growth alongside, clash with, and ultimate assuagement and integration into the home key form the backbone, both intellectual and visceral, of the work’s drama.
This pattern also applies, in dramatically expanded form, in Wagner. Vitally, as a way of thinking, it persists even in much music that has ceased to be tonal; early, freely atonal Schoenberg often treats motive and rhythm in terms of the same underlying dialectic of elemental conflict—see, for example, the first of the Five Orchestral Pieces, in which a single three-note motive is juxtaposed in incompatible rhythmic patterns, which clash with and conquer each other in the same manner as the halves of a Beethovenian harmonic duality. Understood in this sense, the architectonic conflict can be seen as the essential underlying schema of music after the Baroque. The predominant way to understand what the composer is doing, at a psychological level, is to understand this systematization of irregularity.
I believe that this will be in a sense the most fruitful tool for understanding Josquin’s music—precisely by virtue of its total absence. In the Missa L’Homme Armé we will find nowhere such a use of structural dissonance. Such dissonances as occur are largely a product of contrapuntal motion; harmonic areas never stray so far away as to come into fundamental conflict with the tonic. The modality of the work is, in a sense, neutral; Dorian is favored, and movements and sections may stray to different finals with little sense of a friction with the surrounding structure. Rather, each modal digression is a different “view” of sorts, a vision of the modal material from a slightly altered perspective.
In other words, I am trying first to understand this music by what it is not; and it is not the Beethovenian archetype of music, in form or in meaning. This may seem to be stating the obvious, but in fact it is quite the opposite; for the most part, this archetype has become so large in our vision of art music that we are no longer even capable of seeing it. Rather than remaking Josquin in Beethoven’s image, or in Bach’s, as an analytical method derived from the study of their archetypes would encourage, the best way to approach this music is as an archetype of its own, conspicuously alien to the post-Beethovenian tradition, and, for that matter, to the modern mind.
It is in fact possible to rigourously argue the nature of this archetype, if we accept as possible a couple of postulates. The first and most crucial of these is that great art tends toward a unity of style and substance—in other words, that the philosophical or visceral “essence” of a work tends to find some kind of objective mirror in the very nature of its structure. The intimate relationship between the architectonic duality and the Beethovenian rhetoric of suffering is a case in point. The second postulate is that there is at least an inkling of validity in the centuries-old notion, now fallen victim to the relativism of the present age, of some sort of emotional or even biological relation between dissonance and pain.
- “Architectonic” means of, or relating to, architecture or having qualities characteristic of architecture.architecture, without architecture; rather it is about space and how artists conceptualize space. In this exhibition, explore issues central to the practice of architecture such as form, mass, volume, light and shadow, the interior vs. exterior,public vs. private, site-specificity, and making space active. What if those questions were answered by sculptures,
installations, drawings, paintings, and videos? Freed from the constraints of utility and functionality, how does one create alternate answers to investigate space?
build up stacks, create hidden spaces, cast new biomorphic forms, suspend objects from the ceiling or off the wall, play with shadows, respond to specific conditions, pulse lights, sounds, and smells into the air, and document the phenomena found dalam mikro-kosmos. Both artist and architect create a temporal spatial experience for the viewer.
This exhibition will include site-specific installations by the artists Stephen Lapthisophon and Daniel Joglar. Each piece is a response to the gallery, located in the historic Linz Brother’s building in Downtown Dallas, built in 1915. Stephen Stephen
Lapthisophon is creating an installation to face Main Street Alley, a thoroughfare between Main Street and Commerce St. bordered with a wall of glass on the West side of the gallery. Daniel Joglar, in Dallas from Argentina for the Centraltrak Daniel Joglar, residency program with University of Texas at Dallas, will be creating an installation in the front window of the gallery program residensi dengan University of Texas di Dallas, adjacent to the Downtown Neiman Marcus. berdekatan dengan Neiman Marcus Downtown.


- Arquitectónica—the name means "architectural" in Spanish—was responsible for placing Miami on the contemporary architectural map. In 1982, when the firm was only five years old, its row of fashionable condominium towers was completed on Brickell Avenue, and the people who could afford the $400,000 per unit could not move in fast enough. One of these towers, the Atlantis, became an icon—Miami's answer to an Eiffel Tower—partly due to its weekly appearance on the popular television show Miami Vice, This $11 million project was preceded by townhouses in Houston, a theater in Key West, an art gallery in Philadelphia, and an amusement park in Nigeria. Arquitectonica had its origins in the collaboration on the Pink House of Laurinda Spear and Bernardo Fort-Brescia, who would later become founding members of the firm, as well as husband and wife. As a student Spear, with the Dutch architect Ren Koolhaas, had received a Progressive Architecture award for the Pink House design in 1975; after Spear and Fort-Brescia's revisions, it was built in 1978 and received worldwide attention. The firm was overwhelmed with commissions by 1982.

Young Firm

The original firm was made up of a group of architects from Ivy League schools who were either friends or spouses. Spear, Fort-Brescia, and the other founder, Hervin Romney, were all in their thirties when they established the firm. They established a base in Miami, but to achieve their goal of becoming an inter-national firm they put satellite offices in Lima, Peru; Paris; and Hong Kong.
Flamboyant Style

Arquitectonica, and its lead designers Spear and Fort-Brescia, rejected some themes of the day, especially the historical eclecticism of postmodernism. Like the modernists, they preferred un-precedented, innovative structure, shocking viewers with bright primary colors, mirrors, and abstract geometric shapes with no references to the past. Their style has been called flashy and fantasy like. The prominent architect Philip Johnson described the firm as "the gutsiest team in the business."

Atlantis on Brickell

The Atlantis on Brickell is an arresting sight, with a thirty-seven-foot hole cut out of the middle of the mirrored rectangular building. The cut-out box frames a bright red spiral staircase, yellow walls, and a huge palm tree. Each side of the building is different, but they are all balanced visually with a red triangular roof on one side and yellow triangular balconies on the opposite side. The building holds ninety apartments and six duplexes on twenty floors. Four of the floors open to the cut-out space, which contains a whirl-pool, a hot tub, and a tremendous view. The bold, fun building set a new style for Miami Beach.






Courthouse

In Dade County, Florida, in 1988 Arquitectonica redefined American courthouse architecture with its first public building. Not wavering from its modernist stance, the firm designed the courthouse in an abstract style, with skylights, checkerboard floors, trapezoidal windows, and colors such as turquoise and purple. In an unmistakable nod to the Miami Moon motel a mile to the south, the firm placed three crescent-shaped windows in the roadside elevation. Local materials—stucco and tile—were used. Unlike the postmodernists, how-ever, Arquitectonica refused to make regional context a prominent feature of its buildings, instead striving for a classicism that could be repeated in any locale. Fort-Brescia describes the firm's idea of regional architecture: "We do want to create buildings that belong to Miami, but we don't want to imitate past architecture to be contextual. Our buildings try to capture a more intangible spirit of the place. That's what makes them timeless," In 1995 the firm competed against the postmodernist architect Michael Graves in a design competition for a $330 million skyscraper in Times Square in New York City; Arquitectonica won with a forty-seven-story glass tower.


- Architecture (Latin „architectura“, from the Greek „arkitekton“, ὰρχιτεκτονική – arkhitektonike, from ὰρχι chief or leader and Τεκτονική builder or carpenter) is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures.
Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and constructing space that reflects functional, social, and aesthetic considerations. It requires the manipulation and coordination of material, technology, light, and shadow. Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing designed spaces, such as project planning, cost estimating and construction administration. A wider definition may comprise all design activity from the macro-level (urban design, landscape architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture). In fact, architecture today may refer to the activity of designing any kind of system and is often used in the IT world.
Architectural works are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.

The architect
Main article: architect
Architects plan, design and review the construction of buildings and structures for the use of people by the creative organization of materials and components with consideration to mass, space, form, volume, texture, structure, light, shadow, materials, program, and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction limitations and technology, to achieve an end which is usually functional, economical, practical and often artistic. This distinguishes architecture from engineering design, which has as its primary object the creative manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical and scientific principles. As documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, architecture defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or any other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed.
Theory of architecture
Main article: Architectural theory
Historic treatises


Architectural drawings of details of the Palace of Persepolis, Persia (Iran)
The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century CE.[1] According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis,[2][3] which translates roughly as -
• Durability - it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
• Utility - it should be useful and function well for the people using it.
• Beauty - it should delight people and raise their spirits.
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden Mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari.[4] The treatises, by the 18th century, had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.


The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites." (Fletcher).[5]
In the early nineteenth century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only “true Christian form of architecture.”
The 19th century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849,[6] was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".
For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.
On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere "construction", the renowned 20th C. architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".[7]


The National Congress of Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer.
Contemporary concepts of architecture
The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "Form follows function".
While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.


Sydney Opera House, Australia designed by Utzon.
Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.'
To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality".[8]
Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.
History
Main article: History of architecture


Vernacular architecture in Denmark.
Origins and the ancient world
Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a craft.
Here there is a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.


Angkor, Cambodia.
Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan.
In many ancient civilizations, like the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians', architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as Persia architecture and urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state.
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed.
Texts on architecture began to be written in the Classical period. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of Vitruvius, the Kao Gong Ji of ancient China[9] and Vaastu Shastra of ancient India and Manjusri vasthu vidya sastra of Sri Lanka[10] .
The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.
The medieval builder


The Taj Mahal, in India
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, developing from a blend of architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and from Byzantium but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.


Wells Cathedral, Somerset, England, United Kingdom.
In Europe, in both the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period.
During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.
Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.
Renaissance and the architect


La Rotonda, Italy by Palladio
With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio - and the cult of the individual had begun.
There was still no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
Early modern and the industrial age
With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design.


St Pancras Midland Hotel, London, United Kingdom
There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles.
Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.
Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.
Modernism and reaction of architecture
Main article: Modern architecture


The Bauhaus Dessau architecture department from 1925 by Walter Gropius
The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here.
Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.


Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright.
The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution.
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the International Style lost influence in the late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.
Architecture today
Main article: Contemporary architecture


Postmodern design at Gare do Oriente, Lisbon, Portugal, by Santiago Calatrava.
Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to Modernism and Postmodernism by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment.
The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
As the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.
During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect [a] from the 'project' architect.[b]
Moving the issues of environmental sustainability into the mainstream is a significant development in the architecture profession. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. It is now expected that architects will integrate sustainable principles into their projects.[11] An example of an architecturally innovative green building is the Dynamic Tower which will be powered by wind turbines and solar panels.[12]
SOURCES / SUMBER :
www.puslit2.petra.ac.id
www.eprints.undip.ac.id
www.digilib.its.ac.id
http://elearning.unpar.ac.id/course/info.php?id=31
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture
www.downtowndallas.org
Charles Gandee, "Plunging Ahead," Vogue, 185 (August 1995): 22.6-231, 272;

Sidney Le Blanc, 20th Century Architecture (New York: Watson-Guptill, 1993);

Paul M. Sachner, "Miami Virtue," Architectural Record, 176 (May 1988): 122-129.